Trinidad and Tobago
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Background
Trinidad and Tobago, officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island nation in the Caribbean. The country is composed of two main islands—Trinidad and Tobago—along with several smaller islets. Its capital city is Port of Spain, while the largest and most populous municipality is Tunapuna–Piarco. Positioned at the southern end of the eastern Caribbean island chain, Trinidad and Tobago lies close to the South American mainland, northeast of Venezuela and northwest of Guyana.
Geographically, the nation is located approximately 11 kilometres off the coast of Venezuela, 130 kilometres south of Grenada, and 288 kilometres southwest of Barbados. Trinidad was inhabited by Indigenous peoples for centuries prior to European contact. Spanish colonisation began after Christopher Columbus arrived in 1498, before control of the island was transferred to Britain in 1797. The two islands were formally ceded to Britain in 1802, unified as a single colony in 1889, and later achieved independence in 1962, becoming a republic in 1976.
Unlike many Caribbean states that rely heavily on tourism, Trinidad and Tobago has a predominantly industrial economy, supported by significant oil and natural gas reserves. Its southern location also places it outside the main Atlantic hurricane belt, resulting in fewer severe storms than much of the region.
Culturally, Trinidad and Tobago is internationally recognised for its rich blend of African and Indian Caribbean heritage. This diversity is vividly expressed through major cultural events such as Carnival, Hosay, and Diwali. The nation is also the birthplace of the steelpan, limbo, and influential musical genres including calypso, soca, rapso, and chutney.
Origin of the name
The origins of the name Trinidad are closely linked to the island’s Indigenous history and early European contact. Historian E. L. Joseph asserted that the island’s Indigenous name was Cairi, often translated as “Land of the Hummingbird.” This interpretation is commonly associated with the Arawak term for hummingbird, believed to be ierèttê or yerettê. The hummingbird remains a powerful national symbol of Trinidad and Tobago and continues to hold cultural significance.
However, this etymology has been the subject of scholarly debate. Some linguists and historians argue that cairi does not translate to “hummingbird,” noting that the correct Arawak terms for the bird may instead be tukusi or tucuchi. Others contend that kairi or iere may have simply meant “island”, rather than referring to a specific animal. Despite these disputes, the interpretation of Cairi as “Land of the Hummingbird” has endured in popular and cultural usage.
The name Trinidad was given by Christopher Columbus in 1498 during his third voyage to the Americas. He named the island “La Isla de la Trinidad”—“The Island of the Trinity”—in fulfilment of a religious vow made prior to his expedition. This name was retained through Spanish and later British colonial periods and remains in use today.The island of Tobago derives its name from early European encounters with the region. One widely accepted theory suggests that the name originated from the island’s cigar-like shape or from the use of tobacco by Indigenous peoples. Early Spanish terms such as cabaco, tavaco, and tobacco are believed to have influenced the modern name. Tobago was also known by several Indigenous names, including Aloubaéra, meaning “black conch,” and Urupaina, meaning “big snail,” reflecting the island’s natural environment and marine life. The modern English pronunciation of Tobago is /təˈbeɪɡoʊ/.
During the nineteenth century, Indo-Trinidadians referred to Trinidad as Chinidat or Chinidad, meaning “Land of Sugar.” This term emerged during the period of Indian indentureship, when recruiters in India used the name as a persuasive tool to attract laborers to work on Trinidad’s sugar plantations. The term reflects both the central role of sugar in the colonial economy and the historical experiences of the Indian diaspora in Trinidad.
Together, these varied names and interpretations illustrate the complex layers of Indigenous heritage, colonial history, migration, and cultural identity that have shaped Trinidad and Tobago over centuries.
Geology
Geological Formation and Location
Trinidad and Tobago are located at the southernmost end of the Lesser Antilles island chain. Unlike many Caribbean islands that are primarily volcanic in origin, Trinidad is geologically linked to the South American continental shelf. The island was once physically connected to South America and is now separated by the Gulf of Paria, a shallow inland sea between Trinidad and the Venezuelan mainland. This geological proximity has influenced the country’s terrain, natural resources, biodiversity, and early human migration patterns.
Early Indigenous Settlement
Human settlement in Trinidad and Tobago predates European contact by several millennia. The earliest known evidence of habitation is found at Banwari Trace, located in southwestern Trinidad and dating back to approximately 5000 BCE. This site is recognised as the oldest pre-Columbian archaeological site in the Caribbean.
Archaeological discoveries at Banwari Trace include stone tools, shell artifacts, and the skeletal remains known as “Banwari Man,” the oldest human remains identified in the region. These findings confirm that Trinidad was a major early entry point for human migration into the Caribbean from South America.
Indigenous Peoples at the Time of European Contact
By the late 15th century, Trinidad was inhabited by several Indigenous groups. These included Arawakan-speaking peoples, such as the Nepoya and Shebaya, as well as Cariban-speaking groups, including the Yao. Indigenous communities practised agriculture, fishing, and trade, maintaining close cultural and economic ties with the South American mainland.Tobago, in contrast, was primarily inhabited by the Island Caribs, a seafaring people who were known for their resistance to European colonisation and control of regional maritime routes.
First European Contact
Christopher Columbus sighted Trinidad in 1498 during his third voyage to the Americas, naming it La Isla de la Trinidad (“The Island of the Trinity”). During the same voyage, Columbus reported seeing Tobago on the horizon, naming it Bellaforma, though he did not land there.These sightings marked the beginning of European interest in the islands, although sustained colonisation efforts would not begin for several decades.
Spanish Conquest and Early Administration of Trinidad
In the 1530s, Spanish soldier Antonio de Sedeño landed on Trinidad’s southwest coast with the intention of conquering the island. His campaign met strong resistance from Indigenous communities, resulting in prolonged conflict. Despite limited success, Sedeño established a fort, signalling the start of Spanish military presence.In 1592, Indigenous leader Wannawanare (Guanaguanare) granted land near present-day St. Joseph to Spanish official Domingo de Vera e Ibargüen. Later that year, Antonio de Berrío founded San José de Oruña, Trinidad’s first permanent Spanish settlement and capital.
English Incursion and the Raleigh Expedition
In 1595, English privateer Sir Walter Raleigh arrived in Trinidad while searching for the legendary city of El Dorado. Raleigh attacked San José, captured and interrogated Antonio de Berrío, and gathered intelligence from both Spanish officials and Indigenous leaders before departing. Spanish authority was later re-established, but the episode highlighted the island’s vulnerability to foreign incursions.
Missionary Activity and Indigenous Resistance
In 1687, Catholic Capuchin friars were assigned responsibility for converting Indigenous peoples in Trinidad and the Guianas. Several missions were established, including Santa Rosa de Arima in 1689, where Indigenous populations were relocated under the encomienda system, which required forced labour for Spanish authorities.
Growing tensions culminated in 1699, when Indigenous inhabitants of the San Rafael encomienda rebelled, killing several priests and Spanish officials, including Governor José de León y Echales. The Spanish retaliation, known as the Arena massacre, resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Indigenous people. Combined with disease and continued exploitation, these events led to the near-total collapse of the Indigenous population by the early 18th century.
Trinidad as a Spanish Province
During the 17th and early 18th centuries, Trinidad remained a marginal and underdeveloped Spanish colony. It formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, though Spain invested little in its development. In 1757, the colonial capital was moved from San José de Oruña to Puerto de España (modern Port of Spain) following repeated pirate attacks.
By 1777, Trinidad’s population stood at approximately 1,400, making it one of the least populated and least developed colonies in the Caribbean, with minimal plantation infrastructure and extensive forested land.
Tobago: European Rivalry and Plantation Economy
From the early 17th century, Tobago became a focal point of European rivalry. The Dutch, English, Couronians, and later the French, all attempted to colonise the island. By 1654, the Dutch and Couronians established more permanent settlements, followed by French colonists.A plantation economy emerged based on sugar, indigo, and rum, reliant on large numbers of enslaved Africans. Tobago became heavily fortified and changed colonial hands 31 times prior to 1814. Britain held Tobago from 1762 to 1781, after which it fell under French control before being re-captured by Britain in 1793.
The Cédula de Población and French Migration
In 1777, Spanish governor Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga introduced free trade policies to stimulate Trinidad’s economy. These reforms culminated in the Cédula de Población of 1783, issued by King Charles III of Spain and implemented by Governor José María Chacón.The decree granted free land, tax exemptions for ten years, and legal protections to Roman Catholic settlers willing to swear allegiance to Spain. It coincided with instability in the French Caribbean following the French Revolution, prompting a large migration of French planters, free people of colour, and enslaved Africans from neighbouring islands.
New settlements emerged across Trinidad, forming the foundation of a sugar- and cocoa-based plantation economy.
Population Growth and Demographic Transformation
As a result of French migration, Trinidad’s population expanded rapidly. By 1789, the population exceeded 15,000, and by 1797, Port of Spain had grown to over 10,000 inhabitants. The colony became ethnically and socially diverse, comprising Europeans, Africans, free people of colour, enslaved populations, and a small remaining Indigenous presence. Despite this growth, Trinidad remained less densely populated and less economically developed than many Caribbean colonies, a condition that would shape its later historical and institutional development.
Establishment of British Rule (1797–1802)
By the late 18th century, Britain had developed a strategic interest in Trinidad due to its location, harbour potential, and proximity to South America. In 1797, a British expedition led by General Sir Ralph Abercromby invaded Trinidad. The fleet entered through the Bocas and anchored off Chaguaramas. Facing overwhelming force, Spanish governor José María Chacón capitulated without armed resistance.Trinidad was subsequently occupied by Britain and formally became a British Crown Colony under the Treaty of Amiens (1802). At the time of British takeover, the island retained Spanish laws and institutions, while its population was predominantly French-speaking, reflecting earlier migration patterns.
Early British Administration
The colony’s first British governor was Thomas Picton, whose administration was marked by harsh and authoritarian methods, including arbitrary detention and the use of torture. While Picton argued these measures were necessary to maintain order in a volatile colony, his actions eventually led to his recall. Early British governance focused on consolidating control while maintaining existing legal and economic structures.
Demographic Change under British Rule
British administration brought an influx of settlers from the United Kingdom and other British Caribbean colonies. Immigrants included English, Scottish, Irish, German, and Italian families, as well as free Black settlers known as “Merikins”, formerly enslaved Africans who had fought for Britain during the War of 1812 and were later granted land in southern Trinidad.During this period, plantation expansion intensified, and the importation of enslaved Africans increased, even as the abolitionist movement gained momentum in Britain.
Abolition of Slavery and Emancipation
Slavery was abolished across the British Empire in 1833, followed by an apprenticeship system that required formerly enslaved people to continue working for their former masters. Full emancipation was achieved on 1 August 1838, marking a major transformation in Trinidad and Tobago’s social structure.Trinidad differed significantly from other Caribbean colonies: in 1838 it had 17,439 enslaved people, and the majority of slaveholders owned fewer than ten enslaved individuals. This contrasted sharply with colonies such as Jamaica, which had far larger plantation systems.
Daaga Rebellion (1837)
In 1837, Daaga, a West African who had been rescued from Portuguese slavers and conscripted into a British regiment, led a mutiny at the St. Joseph barracks alongside fellow Africans. Attempting to march eastward toward freedom, the rebels were intercepted near Arima by colonial militia. The revolt was crushed with approximately 40 deaths, and Daaga and two others were executed. The uprising highlighted continued resistance to colonial authority even after the formal abolition of slavery.
Post-Emancipation Labour Crisis
Following emancipation, many formerly enslaved people left plantation labour, relocating to urban districts such as Laventille and Belmont. This resulted in a severe agricultural labour shortage, threatening the plantation economy.To address this, British authorities implemented a system of indentured labour, recruiting workers from India, China, and Madeira (Portuguese). Among these groups, Indians were brought in the largest numbers.
Indian Indentureship (1845–1917)
The first group of 225 Indian indentured labourers arrived in Trinidad on 1 May 1845 aboard the Fatel Razack. Between 1845 and 1917, more than 147,000 Indians were brought to Trinidad to work primarily on sugar plantations.Indenture contracts typically lasted five years, with low wages and harsh conditions. While not legally equivalent to slavery—workers were paid, contracts were finite, and corporal punishment was prohibited—the system was frequently exploitative. Contracts were later extended to ten years, and coercive practices were commonly used to retain labour.
To encourage permanent settlement, colonial authorities offered land grants in lieu of return passage to India. By 1902, more than half of Trinidad’s sugar production came from independent Indian cane farmers, and approximately 90% of Indian immigrants chose to remain permanently, profoundly reshaping the colony’s demographic and cultural landscape.
Tobago under British Control and Union with Trinidad
Tobago remained economically fragile throughout the 19th century. Declining sugar production and economic hardship led to social unrest, culminating in the Belmanna Uprising of 1876. Following these disturbances, Tobago’s Legislative Assembly dissolved itself in 1877, and the island became a Crown colony.Due to its unprofitability, Tobago was formally administratively united with Trinidad in 1889, creating the colony of Trinidad and Tobago.
Early 20th Century Political and Social Unrest
In 1903, protests in Port of Spain against increased water rates escalated into riots. Eighteen people were killed, and the Red House (government headquarters) was set on fire. In response, limited representative government was introduced in 1913, marking a cautious step toward political reform.Economically, the colony remained largely agricultural, with sugar and cocoa as key exports.
Labour Movement and the 1919 General Strike
In 1919, dockworkers launched a strike over low wages and poor working conditions. When strikebreakers were introduced, tensions escalated into a general strike, drawing participation from multiple ethnic and labour groups. Violence erupted and was only suppressed with assistance from British naval forces.The strike marked a turning point, demonstrating cross-ethnic working-class solidarity and the emergence of class consciousness, laying foundations for organised labour and political mobilisation.
The Great Depression and Labour Riots (1930s)
The collapse of the sugar and cocoa industries during the 1920s, followed by the Great Depression, caused widespread hardship. In 1937, labour riots broke out across Trinidad and Tobago, resulting in several deaths.Prominent labour leaders emerged, including Arthur Cipriani, Tubal Uriah “Buzz” Butler, and Adrian Cola Rienzi. Their movements demanded improved labour conditions and greater political autonomy, though elite resistance and British oversight limited immediate reforms.
Rise of the Oil Economy
Although petroleum had been discovered in 1857, it became economically significant only from the 1930s onward, as agriculture declined. By the 1950s, oil had become Trinidad’s primary export, fostering the rise of a multi-ethnic middle class and transforming the colony’s economic structure.
World War II and American Presence
During World War II, the United States established military bases in Chaguaramas and Cumuto. The American presence brought major infrastructure development and employment opportunities. U.S. forces withdrew in 1961, but their influence on modernisation was lasting.
Path to Self-Government and Independence
After World War II, Britain accelerated decolonisation across its empire. Universal adult suffrage was introduced in 1945, and political parties emerged, often divided along ethnic lines. The People’s National Movement (PNM), led by Eric Williams, gained strong Afro-Trinidadian support, while Indo-Trinidadians largely backed the PDP/DLP.Trinidad and Tobago joined the West Indies Federation in 1958, but following its collapse in 1961, the colony chose to pursue independence independently—setting the stage for nationhood in 1962.
Independence and Constitutional Transition (1962–1976)
Trinidad and Tobago attained independence from the United Kingdom on 31 August 1962. At independence, Elizabeth II remained head of state, represented locally by Governor-General Solomon Hochoy, until the adoption of the Republican Constitution in 1976.Eric Williams, founder and leader of the People’s National Movement (PNM), became the country’s first Prime Minister and dominated early post-independence politics. The principal opposition figure during this period was Rudranath Capildeo of the Democratic Labour Party (DLP). Key parliamentary offices were established, with Clytus Arnold Thomasos serving as the first Speaker of the House of Representatives and J. Hamilton Maurice as the first President of the Senate.
Black Power Movement and 1970 Crisis
During the late 1960s, Trinidad and Tobago experienced rising political activism influenced by global decolonisation and the U.S. civil rights movement. This culminated in the Black Power movement, which mobilised large-scale protests, strikes, and calls for economic and racial justice.Tensions peaked in April 1970 following the killing of protester Basil Davis by police. Prime Minister Williams declared a state of emergency, detaining several Black Power leaders. A sympathetic faction within the armed forces, led by Raffique Shah and Rex Lassalle, attempted a mutiny; however, it was suppressed by the Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard. Despite the unrest, the PNM retained political control, aided by opposition fragmentation.
National Union of Freedom Fighters (NUFF) Insurgency
In the aftermath of the 1970 crisis, a more radical opposition emerged under the National Union of Freedom Fighters (NUFF). Dissatisfied with constitutional reform and inspired by revolutionary movements abroad, NUFF pursued armed struggle between 1970 and 1974, targeting banks, police stations, and state infrastructure.
The insurgency failed to gain mass support and was gradually dismantled through sustained police and military operations. By 1974, NUFF had been effectively neutralised, with many members killed or detained.
Tobago, Regional Integration, and Natural Disasters
In 1963, Hurricane Flora devastated Tobago, killing dozens and severely damaging the island’s agricultural base. In subsequent decades, tourism replaced agriculture as Tobago’s primary economic sector.Trinidad and Tobago joined the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) in 1968, later becoming a founding member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) in 1973, reinforcing regional economic and political integration following the collapse of the West Indies Federation.
Oil Boom and Republican Status (1972–1983)
Between 1972 and 1983, global oil price increases and new offshore discoveries produced a major economic boom, significantly improving living standards. In 1976, Trinidad and Tobago became a republic within the Commonwealth, replacing the Governor-General with a ceremonial President. Ellis Clarke became the country’s first President.
In 1980, Tobago was granted limited internal self-government with the creation of the Tobago House of Assembly, strengthening local autonomy.
Economic Decline and Political Realignment (1981–1990)
Following the death of Eric Williams in 1981, George Chambers assumed office. A collapse in oil prices triggered a recession marked by inflation and unemployment. In 1986, opposition parties united under the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR) and won the general election, bringing A. N. R. Robinson to power.Robinson’s administration implemented IMF structural adjustment measures, including currency devaluation, which led to public dissatisfaction and social unrest.
Jamaat al Muslimeen Coup Attempt (1990)
In July 1990, 114 members of Jamaat al Muslimeen, led by Yasin Abu Bakr, stormed the Red House (Parliament) and seized the national television station. Prime Minister Robinson and members of Parliament were held hostage for six days.The coup collapsed following negotiations. Although amnesty was promised, the perpetrators were arrested; prolonged legal proceedings later resulted in their release.
Political Alternation and Coalition Era (1991–2010)
The PNM, led by Patrick Manning, returned to power in 1991. A hung parliament in 1995 allowed the United National Congress (UNC), led by Basdeo Panday, to form government—making him the first Indo-Trinidadian Prime Minister.
Following electoral instability, Manning returned to office in 2001 and remained Prime Minister until 2010, overseeing renewed growth driven by energy exports.
Second Energy Boom and Political Change (2003–2015)
A second oil and gas boom began in 2003, consolidating energy as the backbone of the national economy. In 2010, the People’s Partnership (PP) coalition defeated the PNM, and Kamla Persad-Bissessar became the country’s first female Prime Minister.
Her administration declared a state of emergency in 2011 to address violent crime. The PP was defeated in 2015, returning the PNM to power under Keith Rowley.
Recent Developments and Leadership Transition (2015–2025)
The PNM retained power in the 2020 general election, granting Keith Rowley a second term. During this period, states of emergency were declared in response to the COVID-19 pandemic (2021) and rising gun violence (2024–2025).
Trinidad and Tobago hosted the Commonwealth Youth Games from 4–11 August 2023, becoming the first Caribbean nation to do so.In 2024–2025, Rowley announced his intention to step down. Stuart Young was selected by the PNM parliamentary caucus as Prime Minister in January 2025. In April 2025, the UNC won the general election, returning Kamla Persad-Bissessar to office as Prime Minister.
Contemporary Overview
The contemporary era of Trinidad and Tobago has been shaped by energy-driven economic cycles, evolving ethnic and political pluralism, periodic states of emergency, and continued institutional stability within a democratic framework. The nation remains a key political and economic actor in the Caribbean, balancing regional leadership with domestic reform challenges.
Climate
Trinidad and Tobago’s geological structure is among the most complex in the Caribbean, reflecting its historical connection to the South American continental shelf rather than the volcanic origins typical of many Caribbean islands.
Geological Regions
Northern Range
The Northern Range is composed primarily of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. This mountain chain represents the oldest exposed geological formation in the country and is a continuation of Venezuela’s coastal mountain system.
Northern Lowlands
The Northern Lowlands—encompassing the East–West Corridor and the Caroni Plain—are made up of younger, shallow marine clastic sediments. These low-lying areas support much of the country’s population and agricultural activity.
Central Range
South of the Northern Lowlands lies the Central Range fold-and-thrust belt. This region consists mainly of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, with Miocene formations extending along its southern and eastern flanks. The Naparima Plain and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift.
Southern Lowlands and Southern Range
The Southern Lowlands are composed of Miocene and Pliocene sands, clays, and gravels, which overlie significant oil and natural gas deposits—particularly north of the Los Bajos Fault.The Southern Range forms the third major anticlinal uplift. Its rocks—sandstones, shales, siltstones, and clays—were formed during the Miocene and uplifted in the Pleistocene. Oil sands and mud volcanoes are especially common in this region.
Pitch Lake
One of Trinidad’s most notable natural features is Pitch Lake, located in south-west Trinidad. It is the largest natural deposit of asphalt in the world and has been commercially and scientifically significant for over a century.
Climate
Trinidad and Tobago has a maritime tropical climate, characterised by warm temperatures, high humidity, and seasonal rainfall.
Seasons
The climate is divided into two main seasons:
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Dry season: January to May
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Rainy season: June to December
Prevailing winds originate from the northeast and are dominated by the northeast trade winds.
Weather Patterns
Unlike many Caribbean nations, Trinidad and Tobago lies outside the main Atlantic hurricane belt. However, extreme weather events do occur. Notably, Tobago was devastated by Hurricane Flora in 1963, and Trinidad and Tobago experienced the effects of Hurricane Beryl in July 2024.In Trinidad’s Northern Range, temperatures are often cooler than in the surrounding plains due to frequent cloud cover, mist, and heavy orographic rainfall.
Temperature Extremes
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Highest recorded temperature: 39 °C (102 °F), Port of Spain
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Lowest recorded temperature: 12 °C (54 °F)
Biodiversity
Trinidad and Tobago possesses one of the richest biodiversities in the Caribbean, owing to its geological history and proximity to South America.
Biogeographic Significance
Because Trinidad once formed part of the South American mainland, its flora and fauna more closely resemble those of Venezuela than those of most Caribbean islands. This continental origin underpins the country’s exceptional ecological diversity.
Ecosystems
Major ecosystems include:
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Coastal and marine environments (coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, open ocean)
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Tropical forests
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Freshwater systems (rivers, streams, wetlands)
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Karst landscapes
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Savannas
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Man-made ecosystems (agricultural lands, dams, secondary forests)
In 1996, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity and has since produced multiple national biodiversity reports and action plans.
Fauna
Vertebrates
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Birds: 472 species (including 2 endemics)
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Mammals: ~100 species
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Reptiles: ~90 species
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Amphibians: ~30 species
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Fish: ~50 freshwater species and at least 950 marine species
Notable mammals include the ocelot, West Indian manatee, collared peccary (locally known as the quenk), red brocket deer, agouti, and red howler monkey. The country is also home to over 70 species of bats.
Large reptiles include marine turtles, the green anaconda, boa constrictor, and spectacled caiman. Trinidad hosts four venomous snake species, while Tobago has none.Trinidad and Tobago is a major nesting site for leatherback turtles, one of the world’s largest marine turtles.
Marine Life
Marine biodiversity is extensive, featuring coral species, lobsters, manta rays, dolphins, porpoises, and whale sharks.The invasive lionfish (Pterois) is considered a major ecological threat, and population control efforts are ongoing.
Avifauna
The country is internationally recognised as a premier birdwatching destination. Notable species include:
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Scarlet ibis (national bird)
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Cocrico
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Oilbird
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Channel-billed toucan
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Numerous hummingbirds (17 species, including the tufted coquette)
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Parrots, tanagers, trogons, hawks, pelicans, and vultures
Flora and Fungi
Approximately 3,300 plant species have been recorded, including 59 endemics. Forests still cover about 40% of the country, despite historical deforestation.Notable plant life includes the manchineel tree, one of the most poisonous trees in the world.Fungal diversity is exceptionally high, with over 1,600 recorded species, though the true number is believed to be significantly greater.
Invertebrates and Microorganisms
Invertebrate data remains incomplete, but known species include:
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~650 butterflies
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Hundreds of beetle species
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Numerous spiders, ants, corals, and marine invertebrates
Marine algae and microorganisms are under-documented, with current figures believed to represent only a fraction of actual diversity.
Conservation and Environmental Threats
Key threats to biodiversity include:
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Over-hunting and poaching
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Habitat loss and fragmentation
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Forest fires
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Quarrying and industrial expansion
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Water pollution
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Invasive species and pathogens
Despite these challenges, Trinidad and Tobago continues to play a critical role in Caribbean and South American biodiversity conservation.
Government
Trinidad and Tobago is a republic operating under a bicameral parliamentary democracy based on the Westminster system. The political framework combines a ceremonial presidency with an executive prime ministership and a competitive multi-party environment dominated by two major parties.
Head of State
President
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Christine Kangaloo
President of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
In office: since 20 March 2023
The president is the head of state and serves in a largely ceremonial capacity. The office replaced that of the governor-general in 1976, when Trinidad and Tobago became a republic within the Commonwealth.
The president is elected by an electoral college consisting of all members of both houses of Parliament.
Head of Government
Prime Minister
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Kamla Persad-Bissessar
Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago
In office: since 1 May 2025
The prime minister is the head of government and exercises executive authority. Following a general election, the president appoints as prime minister the individual who commands the confidence of a majority in the House of Representatives.
2025 Transition of Power
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On 3 January 2025, Prime Minister Keith Rowley announced his intention to step down before the 2025 general election.
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On 26 February 2025, Rowley confirmed his resignation would take effect on 16 March 2025.
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On 6 January 2025, Stuart Young was elected Prime Minister-designate by the Parliamentary Caucus of the People’s National Movement (PNM).
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Young assumed office on 17 March 2025, but subsequently lost the prime ministership following national elections.
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The United National Congress (UNC) won the 2025 general election, resulting in Kamla Persad-Bissessar returning to office as prime minister.
Legislature
Parliament
The Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago is bicameral, consisting of:
Senate (31 seats)
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16 Government Senators (appointed on the advice of the prime minister)
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6 Opposition Senators (appointed on the advice of the leader of the opposition)
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9 Independent Senators (appointed at the president’s discretion to represent civil society)
House of Representatives (41 seats + Speaker)
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Members are elected by popular vote
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Maximum parliamentary term: five years
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Electoral system: first-past-the-post
Tobago Governance
Since 1980, Tobago has exercised a degree of internal self-government through the Tobago House of Assembly (THA).
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The THA is unicameral
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Members are elected in elections held separately from national general elections
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The THA has authority over certain local administrative and developmental matters
Administrative Divisions
Main article: Regions and municipalities of Trinidad and Tobago
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Trinidad is divided into 14 administrative units:
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9 regional corporations
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5 municipalities
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These local authorities possess limited autonomy
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Councils consist of both elected and appointed members
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Local government elections are held every three years
Tobago is administered separately by the Tobago House of Assembly.
Political Culture
Trinidad and Tobago operates within a competitive multi-party system, though political power has historically alternated between two dominant parties:
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People’s National Movement (PNM)
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United National Congress (UNC)
Both parties are generally considered left-of-centre, with voter support often aligning along ethnic rather than ideological lines:
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The PNM traditionally draws strong support from Afro-Trinidadians
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The UNC traditionally draws strong support from Indo-Trinidadians
As of the 2020 general elections, 19 political parties were registered, including a range of smaller and emerging political movements.
Military and Defence
Main article: Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force
The Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force (TTDF) is responsible for national defence and security.
Structure
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Trinidad and Tobago Regiment
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Coast Guard
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Air Guard
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Defence Force Reserves
Established in 1962, the TTDF is among the largest military forces in the Anglophone Caribbean.
Roles and Operations
The TTDF’s mandate includes:
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Defence of national sovereignty
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Support to civil authorities
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Participation in regional and international missions
The force has been deployed during major domestic events such as:
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The Black Power Movement (1970)
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The Jamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt (1990)
Internationally, it has contributed to missions including the United Nations Mission in Haiti (1993–1996).
International Commitments and Security Standing
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In 2019, Trinidad and Tobago signed the United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
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According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, the country ranked 87th most peaceful globally.
Demographic
The population of Trinidad and Tobago is estimated at between 1.4 and 1.5 million people by the mid-2020s. The country’s demographic profile reflects centuries of Indigenous settlement, European colonisation, African enslavement, and post-emancipation indentured migration, followed by modern regional migration flows.
Ethnic Composition
Main article: Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago § Ethnic groups
Overview
The ethnic composition of Trinidad and Tobago reflects a complex history of conquest, forced migration, indentureship, and voluntary immigration. While the earliest inhabitants were Indigenous peoples, the contemporary population is primarily composed of people of South Asian (Indian) and African descent, alongside a substantial mixed-heritage population.
Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians
Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians form the largest single ethnic group, comprising approximately 35.4% of the population. They are primarily descendants of indentured labourers from India, brought to Trinidad between 1845 and 1917 to work on sugar plantations following the abolition of slavery.Many Indo-Trinidadians have preserved cultural, religious, and linguistic traditions linked to their ancestral homeland. The population is concentrated mainly on Trinidad, with Indians accounting for only about 2.5% of Tobago’s population as of the 2011 census.
Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians
Afro-Trinidadians constitute approximately 34.2% of the population. They are largely descendants of enslaved West Africans forcibly transported to the islands from the 16th century onward.Afro-Trinidadians form the majority population in Tobago, representing approximately 85.2% of the island’s residents. African cultural influences are deeply embedded in national music, religion, language, and festivals.
Mixed and Other Communities
Approximately 30% of the population identifies as being of mixed heritage, reflecting centuries of cultural interaction.
Smaller but significant minority communities include people of:
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Indigenous descent
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Portuguese
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Other European origins
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Latin American
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Chinese
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Arab ancestry
Arima, in eastern Trinidad, is a recognised centre of First Peoples’ culture, serving as the seat of the Carib Queen and home to the Santa Rosa First Peoples Community.
Cocoa Panyol Community
Trinidad and Tobago is also home to a Cocoa Panyol community, descended from migrant labourers of mixed Spanish, Indigenous, and African ancestry who arrived from Venezuela in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to work on cocoa estates.
Languages
Main article: Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago § Language
Overview
English is the official language of Trinidad and Tobago. However, everyday communication reflects the country’s multicultural heritage, with several creole and heritage languages in use.
Languages spoken include:
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Trinidadian English Creole
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Tobagonian English Creole
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Trinidadian Hindustani
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Trinidadian French Creole (Patois)
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Spanish
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Chinese languages
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Tamil (limited use)
English and English-Based Creoles
The vast majority of citizens speak English, often in the form of Trinidadian or Tobagonian English Creole. These creoles incorporate linguistic elements from African, European, Indian, and Indigenous sources and function as the primary spoken languages of daily life.
Trinidadian French Creole (Patois)
Trinidadian French Creole developed following the arrival of French settlers under the Cédula de Población (1783). For much of the 19th century, it functioned as a lingua franca.
Although now endangered, it survives in communities such as Paramin and Blanchisseuse, and in cultural expressions including Carnival characters and music. Words such as bakanal and dingolay entered mainstream national vocabulary from this creole.
Trinidadian Hindustani
Trinidadian Hindustani developed from Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialects spoken by Indian indentured labourers. Over time, exposure to Indian cinema and Standard Hindi-Urdu influenced its vocabulary.
By the mid-20th century, English replaced Hindustani as the primary language of Indo-Trinidadians, but Hindustani remains preserved through:
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Religious practices
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Music (bhajan, chutney, chutney soca, pichakaree, chutney parang)
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Ritual language and prayers
World Hindi Day is observed annually on 10 January, with events organised by cultural and religious institutions.
Spanish
Spanish is historically present through colonial legacy and place names. Its use has expanded significantly in the 21st century due to Venezuelan migration, with thousands of residents now speaking Spanish as a first or second language.
Tamil and Chinese Languages
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Tamil is spoken by some older Indo-Trinidadians and recent immigrants from Tamil Nadu.
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Chinese languages, historically Hakka and Yue, are spoken within Chinese-Trinidadian communities, alongside Mandarin among newer migrants.
Indigenous Languages
Historically spoken Indigenous languages included:
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Yao (Trinidad)
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Shebaya (Arawakan, Trinidad)
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Karina (Cariban, Tobago)
These languages are no longer in active daily use.
Religion
Main article: Religion in Trinidad and Tobago
Overview
Trinidad and Tobago is one of the most religiously diverse countries in the Caribbean. Freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed, and major religious festivals are recognised nationally.
Christianity
Christianity is the largest religion, encompassing Roman Catholicism, Pentecostalism, Anglicanism, Presbyterianism, Methodism, Seventh-day Adventism, and other denominations. Christianity has played a central role in education and social institutions since the colonial period.
Hinduism
Hinduism is the second-largest religion and is most prominent among Indo-Trinidadians. Major organisations include the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha and Arya Samaj.
Diwali is a national public holiday, and Hindu temples and cultural centres are widespread.
Islam
Islam is practiced by Indo-Trinidadians and Afro-Trinidadians. Eid al-Fitr is a national holiday, while other observances such as Eid al-Adha and Hosay are widely recognised.
Other Religions and Beliefs
Other faiths include:
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Spiritual Baptist
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Trinidad Orisha
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Rastafari
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Baháʼí Faith
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Buddhism
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Sikhism
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Judaism (small community)
A minority of citizens identify as non-religious or did not state a religious affiliation.